Everything you Should Know About an IP-Addresses

                                         
You have heard of this term IP Address many times in day-to day life if you belong to IT sector, yes as soon as you heard about the term IP only one thing that stucks in your mind is the IP of a computer which you people might have seen. But what this IP actually is….??
IP address, or “internet protocol address”, is a unique identifying number given to every single computer on the Internet. Like a car license plate, an IP address is a special serial number used for identification.
NOTE:- An IP Address is different from a MAC Address or an Domain Name address

Any machine connected to the Internet has an IP address  Xbox games, cell phones, fax machines, and even soda pop dispensers have IP addresses. In every case, the IP address acts both like a car license plate and like a telephone number: it shows ownership, allows the machine to be located by other machines, and empowers authorities to track and protect people’s safety, if need be.

How IP addresses look:

IP addresses have two common formats. IP version 4 addresses are comprised of four numbers-only segments separated by dots:

• e.g. 127.0.0.1
• e.g. 253.16.44.22
• e.g. 72.48.108.101

IP version 6 addresses are more complex. IPv6 addresses are comprised of 8 segments:

• e.g. 3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf
• e.g. 21DA:D3:0:2F3B:2AA:FF:FE28:9C5A

Related: Read more about how IPv6 is different from IPv4.

IP address is not the same as www domain name addresses:

For nearly every web server, the IP address is invisibly translated into a natural English “domain name” for ease of use. But technically speaking, the IP address is the true identifier of a web server…the domain name is simply a redirector pointer to help people find the web server.
Here are three IP addresses, with their corresponding domain names. Both the IP address and domain name URL can be used to connect to the same web server:

• • e.g. 72.246.51.15 = http://www.nasa.gov
  • e.g. 152.91.56.138 = http://www.gov.au
  • e.g. 208.185.127.40 = http://www.about.com

Your ISP has a block of IP addresses to lend:
Internet authorities allot large bundles of IP address numbers to regional internet service providers. Those ISP’s, in turn, assign the IP addresses to every server and every internet user who logs on. Yes, there are millions of IP addresses active at any instant.

More about IP addresses:

• Trivia point 1: before the World Wide Web became popular in the 1990’s, every computer was assigned a fixed (“static” IP address). But with so many millions of internet users today, ISP’s now choose to “lend” IP addresses from a pool of numbers. This is much like dealer license plates being shared amongst test drive vehicles at a car dealership. This loaning of IP addresses is called “dynamic IP addressing”, and is proven to work better for individual users.
• Trivia point 2: often, it is possible to identify where a user is in the world by their IP address. Web sites like www.whatismyipaddress.com/ can read your computer’s IP address, compare it to its database of ISP’s, and attempt to guess your location on the planet.

• Trivia point 3: it is possible to mask or digitally alter the appearance of your computer’s IP address. You would do this for the sake of privacy or to avoid authorities tracking your online habits.
• Trivia point 4: within office networks, each office computer is given an “internal IP address”. As soon as an office computer accesses the internet, it then borrows the office’s main IP address. This works much like office telephone numbers: a unique internal extension number is assigned to every user, but as soon as any person dials out of the office, call display will only show the office’s main phone number. This is known as internal vs. external IP addressing, and is a necessary technique to reduce the number of IP addresses on the internet.

• Trivia point 5: as of April 2013, the internet is switching from IP addressing standard Version 4 (aka “IPv4”) to a new generation of addresses called IPv6. The biggest change is in the number of available addresses. Instead of 4.3 billion possible IP addresses, IPv6 will bring us 34,000,000,000,000,000,000 billion possible IP addresses.

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How Cloud Computing Works.

                              

Let’s say you’re an executive at a large corporation. Your particular responsibilities include making sure that all of your employees have the right hardware and software they need to do their jobs. Buying computers for everyone isn’t enough — you also have to purchase software or software licenses to give employees the tools they require. Whenever you have a new hire, you have to buy more software or make sure your current software license allows another user. It’s so stressful that you find it difficult to go to sleep on your huge pile of money every night.

Soon, there may be an alternative for executives like you. Instead of installing a suite of software for each computer, you’d only have to load one application. That application would allow workers to log into a Web-based service which hosts all the programs the user would need for his or her job. Remote machines owned by another company would run everything from e-mail to word processing to complex data analysis programs. It’s called cloud computing, and it could change the entire computer industry.

In a cloud computing system, there’s a significant workload shift. Local computers no longer have to do all the heavy lifting when it comes to running applications. The network of computers that make up the cloud handles them instead. Hardware and software demands on the user’s side decrease. The only thing the user’s computer needs to be able to run is the cloud computing system’sinterface software, which can be as simple as a Web browser, and the cloud’s network takes care of the rest.

There’s a good chance you’ve already used some form of cloud computing. If you have an e-mail account with a Web-based e-mail service like Hotmail, Yahoo! Mail or Gmail, then you’ve had some experience with cloud computing. Instead of running an e-mail program on your computer, you log in to aWeb e-mail account remotely. The software and storage for your account doesn’t exist on your computer — it’s on the service’s computer cloud.

Cloud Computing Architecture

When talking about a cloud computing system, it’s helpful to divide it into two sections: the front end and the back end. They connect to each other through a network, usually the internet. The front end is the side the computer user, or client, sees. The back end is the “cloud” section of the system.

The front end includes the client’s computer(or computer network) and the application required to access the cloud computing system. Not all cloud computing systems have the same user interface. Services like Web-based e-mail programs leverage existing Web browsers like Internet Explorer or Firefox. Other systems have unique applications that provide network access to clients.On the back end of the system are the various computers, servers and data storage systems that create the “cloud” of computing services. In theory, a cloud computing system could include practically any computer program you can imagine, from data processing to video games. Usually, each application will have its own dedicated server.

A central server administers the system, monitoring traffic and client demands to ensure everything runs smoothly. It follows a set of rules called protocols and uses a special kind of software called middleware. Middleware allows networked computers to communicate with each other. Most of the time, servers don’t run at full capacity. That means there’s unused processing power going to waste. It’s possible to fool a physical server into thinking it’s actually multiple servers, each running with its own independent operating system. The technique is called server virtualization. By maximizing the output of individual servers, server virtualization reduces the need for more physical machines.

If a cloud computing company has a lot of clients, there’s likely to be a high demand for a lot of storage space. Some companies require hundreds of digital storage devices. Cloud computing systems need at least twice the number of storage devices it requires to keep all its clients’ information stored. That’s because these devices, like all computers, occasionally break down. A cloud computing system must make a copy of all its clients’ information and store it on other devices. The copies enable the central server to access backup machines to retrieve data that otherwise would be unreachable. Making copies of data as a backup is called redundancy.

Cloud Computing Applications

The applications of cloud computing are practically limitless. With the right middleware, a cloud computing system could execute all the programs a normal computer could run. Potentially, everything from generic word processing software to customized computer programs designed for a specific company could work on a cloud computing system.

Why would anyone want to rely on another computer system to run programs and store data?

• Clients would be able to access their applications and data from anywhere at any time. They could access the cloud computing system using any computer linked to the Internet. Data wouldn’t be confined to a hard drive on one user’s computer or even a corporation’s internal network.
• It could bring hardware costs down. Cloud computing systems would reduce the need for advanced hardware on the client side. You wouldn’t need to buy the fastest computer with the most memory, because the cloud system would take care of those needs for you. Instead, you could buy an inexpensive computer terminal. The terminal could include a monitor, input devices like a keyboard and mouse and just enough processing power to run the middleware necessary to connect to the cloud system. You wouldn’t need a large hard drive because you’d store all your information on a remote computer.
• Corporations that rely on computers have to make sure they have the right software in place to achieve goals. Cloud computing systems give these organizations company-wide access to computer applications. The companies don’t have to buy a set of software or software licenses for every employee. Instead, the company could pay a metered fee to a cloud computing company.
• Servers and digital storage devices take up space. Some companies rent physical space to store servers and databases because they don’t have it available on site. Cloud computing gives these companies the option of storing data on someone else’s hardware, removing the need for physical space on the front end.
• Corporations might save money on IT support. Streamlined hardware would, in theory, have fewer problems than a network of heterogeneousmachines and operating systems.
• If the cloud computing system’s back end is a grid computing system, then the client could take advantage of the entire network’s processing power. Often, scientists and researchers work with calculations so complex that it would take years for individual computers to complete them. On a grid computing system, the client could send the calculation to the cloud for processing. The cloud system would tap into the processing power of all available computers on the back end, significantly speeding up the calculation. 

Cloud Computing Concerns

Perhaps the biggest concerns about cloud computing are security and privacy. The idea of handing over important data to another company worries some people. Corporate executives might hesitate to take advantage of a cloud computing system because they can’t keep their company’s information underlock and key.

The counterargument to this position is that the companies offering cloud computing services live and die by their reputations. It benefits these companies to have reliable security measures in place. Otherwise, the service would lose all its clients. It’s in their interest to employ the most advanced techniques to protect their clients’ data.

Privacy is another matter. If a client can log in from any location to access data and applications, it’s possible the client’s privacy could be compromised. Cloud computing companies will need to find ways to protect client privacy. One way is to useauthentication techniques such as user names and passwords. Another is to employ an authorization format — each user can access only the data and applications relevant to his or her job.

Some questions regarding cloud computing are more philosophical. Does the user or company subscribing to the cloud computing service own the data? Does the cloud computing system, which provides the actual storage space, own it? Is it possible for a cloud computing company to deny a client access to that client’s data? Several companies, law firms and universities are debating these and other questions about the nature of cloud computing.

How will cloud computing affect other industries? There’s a growing concern in the IT industry about how cloud computing could impact the business of computer maintenance and repair. If companies switch to using streamlined computer systems, they’ll have fewer IT needs. Some industry experts believe that the need for IT jobs will migrate to the back end of the cloud computing system.

Another area of research in the computer science community is autonomic computing. An autonomic computing system is self-managing, which means the system monitors itself and takes measures to prevent or repair problems. Currently, autonomic computing is mostly theoretical. But, if autonomic computing becomes a reality, it could eliminate the need for many IT maintenance jobs.

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What are Virtual Machines..?

A virtual machine uses a combination of software and your existing computer to emulate additional computers, all within one physical device.
Virtual machines provide the ability to emulate a separate operating system (the guest), and therefore a separate computer, from right within your existing OS (the host). This independent instance appears in its own window and is typically isolated as a completely standalone environment, although interactivity between guest and host is often permitted for tasks such as file transfers.

Everyday Reasons For Using a Virtual Machine

There are many reasons why you may want to run a VM, including developing or testing software on various platforms without actually utilizing a second device. Another purpose could be gaining access to applications that are native to an operating system different than your own. An example of this would be wanting to play a game exclusive to Windows when all you have is a Mac.

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In addition, VMs provide a level of flexibility in terms of experimenting that is not always feasible on your main, host operating system. Most VM software allows you to take snapshots of the guest OS, which you can later revert back to if something were to go wrong such as key files becoming corrupted or even a malware infection taking place.

Why Businesses Might Use Virtual Machines

On a grander, non-personal scale, many organizations deploy and maintain several virtual machines.

Rather than having a large number of individual computers running at all times, companies opt to have a bunch of VMs hosted on a much smaller subset of powerful servers, saving money not only on physical space but also on electricity and maintenance. These VMs can be controlled from a single administrative interface and made accessible to employees from their own remote workstations, often spread out across multiple geographical locations.

Because of the isolated nature of the virtual machine instances, companies can even allow users to access their corporate networks via this technology on their own personal computers—adding to both flexibility and cost savings.

Full control is another reason that they are an attractive alternative for admins, as each VM can be manipulated, started and stopped instantly with just a simple mouse click or command line entry. Couple that with real-time monitoring ability and advanced security oversight and virtual machines become quite a viable option.

Common Limitations of Virtual Machines

While VMs are certainly useful, there are notable limitations that need to be understood beforehand so that your performance expectations are realistic. Even if the device hosting the VM contains powerful hardware, the virtual instance itself may run significantly slower than it would on its own independent computer. Advancements in hardware support within VMs have come a long way in recent years, but the fact remains that this limitation will never be completely eliminated.
Another obvious limitation is cost. Aside from the fees associated with some virtual machine software, installing and running an operating system – even within a VM – still requires a license or other authentication method in some instances, depending on the particular OS.

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For example, running a guest instance of Windows 10 requires a valid license key just as it would if you were installing the operating system on an actual PC. While a virtual solution is typically cheaper in most cases than having to purchase additional physical machines, the costs can add up when you require a larger-scale rollout.

Other potential limitations to consider would be lack of support for certain hardware components as well as possible network constraints. With all of that said, as long as you do your research and have realistic expectations going in, implementing virtual machines in your home or business environment could be a real game changer.

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Details about Java Virtual Machine you mus know.

                            
JVM is an specification that provides run-time environment in which java byte-code can be executed.
JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms (i.e. JVM is platform dependent).

What is JVM

It is:

1. A specification where working of Java Virtual Machine is specified. But implementation provider is independent to choose the algorithm. Its implementation has been provided by Sun and other companies.
2. An implementation Its implementation is known as JRE (Java Runtime Environment).
3. Runtime Instance Whenever you write java command on the command prompt to run the java class, an instance of JVM is created.

What it does

The JVM performs following operation:

• Loads code
• Verifies code
• Executes code
• Provides runtime environment

JVM provides definitions for the:

• Memory area
• Class file format
• Register set
• Garbage-collected heap
• Fatal error reporting etc.

Internal Architecture of JVM

Let’s understand the internal architecture of JVM. It contains classloader, memory area, execution engine etc.

                                

1) Classloader

Classloader is a subsystem of JVM that is used to load class files.

2) Class(Method) Area

Class(Method) Area stores per-class structures such as the runtime constant pool, field and method data, the code for methods.

3) Heap

It is the runtime data area in which objects are allocated.

4) Stack

Java Stack stores frames.It holds local variables and partial results, and plays a part in method invocation and return.

Each thread has a private JVM stack, created at the same time as thread.

A new frame is created each time a method is invoked. A frame is destroyed when its method invocation completes.

5) Program Counter Register

PC (program counter) register. It contains the address of the Java virtual machine instruction currently being executed.

6) Native Method Stack

It contains all the native methods used in the application.

7) Execution Engine

It contains:

1) A virtual processor

2) Interpreter: Read bytecode stream then execute the instructions.

3) Just-In-Time(JIT) compiler: It is used to improve the performance.JIT compiles parts of the byte code that have similar functionality at the same time, and hence reduces the amount of time needed for compilation.Here the term ?compiler? refers to a translator from the instruction set of a Java virtual machine (JVM) to the instruction set of a specific CPU.

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Virus VS Malware

Difference Between Viruses and Malware

These days many of us talk about like malware and spyware a lot more than the virus. Have you ever wondered what exactly are all these?
Beginning with to understand what a virus is we will start with the original biological meaning of the word.                                                                                                        

Biological viruses like the ones that can make you sick are parasitic. They inject their code in this case either DNA or RNA into a host cell as a means of replication this code causes the cell to make a ton of copies of the virus and ultimately burst to send new viruses everywhere. Computer Viruses operate via a similar principle unlike some forms of malware which are fully executable programs.

  Viruses tend to be smaller pieces of code that confused with other programs or  files 
and only replicate when conditions are right. So they can be triggered by a particular date and time opening a certain program or even hitting a certain amount of disk usage. After a virus is triggered, it will try to copy itself and spread infecting other files and programs along the way sometimes over a network and just like real viruses these virus copies can be a little different from the original making it hard for antivirus software to eliminate them. Some even come encrypted making detection even more complicated.

A computer virus can contain a payload that will cause some effect which could be anything from just displaying a joke to permanently corrupting your important data.
To make it simple now, Malware is any computer infection, which includes viruses and malicious software. Since other types of malware can cause these annoying effects, many people have used the terms virus and malware interchangeably, but this is incorrect. Much modern malware like ransomware and adware are also standalone programs that can be passed around and executed on their own.

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How does an Image Sensor Chips and Camera Works.

All webcams work in broadly the same way: they use an image sensor chip to catch moving images and convert them into streams of digits that are uploaded over the Internet. The image sensor chip is the heart of a webcam—so how does that bit work? Let's take a webcam apart and find out.
Take the outer case off a webcam and you'll find it's little more than a plastic lens mounted directly onto a tiny electronic circuit board underneath. The lens screws in and out to increase its focal length, controlling the focus of your cam:

                                            

Now take the lens off and you can see the image sensor (CCD or CMOS chip): it's the square thing in the middle of this circuit. Only the tiny, green-colored central part is light-sensitive: the rest of the chip is concerned with connecting the light detector to the bigger circuit that surrounds it
:

                                            

Here's a closeup:

                                           

Webcams versus digital cameras

So the image sensor is the "electronic eye" of a webcam or a digital camera. It's a semiconductor chip  made of millions of tiny, light-sensitive squares arranged in a grid pattern. These squares are called pixels. Basic webcams use relatively small sensors with just a few hundred thousand pixels (typically a grid of 640 × 480. Good digital cameras use sensors with many more pixels; that's why cameras are compared by how many megapixels (millions of pixels) they have. A basic webcam has about 0.3 megapixels (300,000, in other words), while a digital camera with 6 megapixels has over 20 times more—probably arranged in a rectangle with three thousand across and two thousand down (3000 x 2000 = 6 million). A better camera rated at 12 megapixels would have a 4000 x 3000 pixel sensor. Take a photo the same size with those two cameras and the 12 megapixel one is going to give you 1000 more dots horizontally and 1000 more vertically—smaller dots giving more detail and higher resolution. A single pixel in a really good sensor is something like 10 micrometers (10μm) in diameter (5–10 times smaller than the diameter of a typical human hair)!

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How does an image sensor convert a picture into digital form?

 

                                                      

When you take a digital photo or stare into your webcam, light zooms into the lens. This incoming "picture" hits the image sensor, which breaks it up into individual pixels that are converted into numeric form. CCDs and CMOS chips, the two kinds of image sensor, do this job in slightly different ways. Both initially convert incoming light rays into electricity, much like photoelectric cells (used in things like "magic eye" intruder alarms or restroom washbasins that switch on automatically when you put your hands under the faucet). But a CCD is essentially an analog optical chip that converts light into varying electrical signals, which are then passed on to one or more other chips where they're digitized (turned into numbers). By contrast, a CMOS chip does everything in one place: it captures light rays and turns them into digital signals all on the one chip. So it's essentially a digital device where a CCD is an analog one. CMOS chips work faster and are cheaper to make in high volume than CCDs, so they're now used in most low-cost cellphone cameras and webcams. But CCDs are still widely used in some applications, such as low-light astronomy.
Whether images are being generated by a CMOS sensor or a CCD and other circuitry, the basic process is the same: an incoming image is converted into an outgoing pattern of digital pixels. Let's just refer to "the image sensor" from now on (and forget about whether it's a CCD and other chips or a CMOS sensor). First, the image sensor measures how much light is arriving at each pixel. This information is turned into a number that can be stored on a memory chip inside the camera. Thus, taking a digital photograph converts the picture you see into a very long string of numbers. Each number describes one pixel in the image—how bright or dark and what color it is.

Step by step

• Light from the object (in this case, a bicycle) enters the camera lens.

• The image sensor inside the camera splits the image up into millions of pixels (squares). An LCD display on the back of the camera shows you the image that the sensor is capturing—not an image of the object seen through a series of lenses (as with a conventional camera), but a redrawn, computerized version of the original object displayed on a screen.

• The sensor measures the color and brightness of each pixel.

• The color and brightness are stored as binary numbers (patterns of zeros and ones) in the camera's memory card. When you connect your camera to a computer, these numbers are transmitted instantly down the wire.                  

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Everything You must know About the BITCOINS.

A few days ago, the world has seen the biggest Ransomware attack called WannaCry. The hackers encrypted all the information of victims and asked for Bitcoins to decrypt the data. You may wonder why hackers asked for Bitcoins instead of dollars or euro? What is Bitcoin and Bitcoin mining? What is the reason for asking Bitcoins?
In this article, I am going to share everything you need to know about Bitcoins and how do they work.

What is a Bitcoin?

Bitcoin is the virtual banking currency of the internet also known as ‘cryptocurrency’. It is the world’s “first decentralized digital currency”. A mysterious person known as Satoshi Nakamoto launched bitcoin in 2009. His true identity is still unknown. It has existed for several years now and many people have questions about them such as Where do they come from? Are they legal? Where can you get them?.
Bitcoins are digital coins, you can send over the internet. Compared to other choices, bitcoin have many advantages. They are transferred straight from person to another via Internet without going to the bank. It means that the transactions fees are extremely lower, anyone can use them in every country, the account cannot be frozen and there are no limits.


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Bitcoins are a form of digital public money that is created by painstaking mathematical computations and policed by millions of computer users called ‘miners’. Bitcoins are, in essence, electricity converted into long strings of code that have money value. The value of a single Bitcoin has fluctuated wildly, reaching a high of around $1,000 in late 2013 before falling to less than half that level, and then rebounding in 2016. In 2017, it’s value has reached to $2500 (per bitcoin).

How Does Bitcoin Work? (Bitcoin Mining)

Many currency exchanges exist on the Internet where you can buy and sell bitcoins. Your coins are saved in your digital wallet on your computer or mobile device or any online wallet. Sending and receiving Bitcoins is as easy as sending and receiving email, you can buy anything with Bitcoin.



                           

Bitcoin is underpinned by a peer-to-peer computer network made up of its users’ machines, akin to the networks that underpin BitTorrent, a file-sharing system, and Skype, an audio, video and chat service. Bitcoins are mathematically generated as the computers in this network execute difficult number-crunching tasks, a procedure known as ” Bitcoin mining “.
To use Bitcoin, you need to install Bitcoin wallet. Once you have installed a Bitcoin wallet on your computer or mobile phone, it will generate your first Bitcoin address and you can create more whenever you need one. You can disclose your addresses to your friends so that they can pay you or vice versa. This is pretty similar to how email works but you can use one bitcoin address at once.
The bitcoins system is secured by individuals called Bitcoin miners. Workers or miners are paid newly created bitcoins for verifying transactions. All transactions after verified are recorded in a transparent public record. The mathematics of the Bitcoin system were set up so that it becomes progressively more difficult to “mine” Bitcoins over time, and the total number that can ever be mined is limited to around 21 million. There is therefore no way for a central bank to issue a flood of new Bitcoins and devalue those already in circulation.

 

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